Analyse the key features of Virtue Ethics Essay

Virtue ethics is a custom which goes back to Plato and Aristotle; it is also known as aretaic ethics, from the Greek word arà ªte meaning excellence or virtue. There are a number of key features to virtue ethics, one of the most significant being that it is an agent-centered theory rather than act-centered theory. Therefore it asks the questions ‘What sort of person ought I to be?’ rather than ‘How ought I to act’. The concept does not focus on actions being right or wrong, but on how to be a good/virtuous person. Virtue ethics was re-examined and redeveloped in the twentieth century by philosophers such as G.E.M. Anscombe. Plato proposed that virtue ethics centers around the achievement of man’s highest good, which involves the right cultivation of his soul and the harmonious well-being of his life, otherwise known as eudaimonia. Additionally, Cardinal virtues are a vital feature to the proposal of virtue ethics, examples are: temperance, courage, prudence and justice. These Plato seemed to consider central virtues and that, when these virtues are in balance, a person’s actions will be good. However, there was not much agreement among the Greek philosophers about which virtues were central, and Aristotle gives a very different account of the virtues. Aristotle highlighted a significant feature to the theory as he sought to give an account of the structure of morality and explained, in his book Nicomachean Ethics, that the point of engaging in ethics is to become ‘good’. Here, Aristotle differentiates between things which are good as means and things which are good as ends. Additionally, Anscombe argues that eudaimonia is the highest good because we desire it for its own sake, and not just as a means to anything else at all. Other good things, such a justice, are desired because they lead to a good life, whereas good living itself is not wanted for anything which it might lead to; it is inherently worth having. Aristotle, highlighting another feature of the ethic, suggests that human well-being and human flourishing is a life characterized by the virtues. However, this good human life is one  lived in harmony and co-operation with other people, since Aristotle saw people as not only rational beings but also as social beings. We live in groups and he saw the well-being of the group as more important than that of a single member. Moreover, Aristotle believed that the best way to achieve eudaimonia was to develop and exercise qualities that are most productive for living in a society. Extremes of behavior, such as being too timid at one extreme or too assertive at the other, are unhelpful to society. This led Aristotle to create a crucial feature of virtue ethics, what he called the Golden Mean, which can be explained as: striking the right balance between extremes. Each extreme he called a ‘vice’, and the midway point where the right balance is struck he called a ‘virtue’. However, the mean is not the same of everything and depends on circumstance – you need to apply phronesis to decide on the right course of action on each situation. Aristotle was convinced that virtue is something which we acquire and not something which we have when we are born; different people are not inherently good or bad, but become good or bad according to the habits they develop in themselves. Therefore, Aristotle highlighted a key feature in the ethic that it is not enough to have the know-how or even the habit of behaving as the virtuous person does, the actions are not as important as the character, and therefore the virtuous behavior must be done with the right motivation, as the virtuous person would do them. In the twentieth century there was a revival of interest in virtue ethics by philosophers who were unhappy with act-centered ethical theories. Stressing key features to the theory, modern versions of virtue ethics argue that the assessment of a person’s character is an important aspect to our ethical thought and needs to be included in any ethical theory. In 1958 G.E.M. Anscombe published a paper called ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ where she argued that the concept of moral rules and of moral obligations is flawed. She attacked the traditions of Utilitarianism and of Kant, which both set out principles for people to follow and which look at the morality of different actions, rather than at the character of the person. Anscombe argued that the idea that we have obligations to keep rules makes no sense unless people believe in God. Without any absolute law-giver, there is no sense in following laws in ethics. She saw that ethical systems which try to establish rules even after the idea of God has been abandoned are incoherent, not recognizing that their basis depends on belief which many people no longer hold. For Anscombe, the way forward is to revive the concept of human ‘flourishing’, eudaimonia, which does not depend on any notion of God. Philippa Foot attempted to modernise Aristotle’s virtue ethics while still keeping the Aristotelian understanding of character and virtue. She recognises the significant features to the ethic, such as the importance of the person’s own reasoning in the practice of virtue, claims that the virtues benefit the individual by leading to flourishing and stresses that the virtuous person does far more than conform to the conventions of society. Foot argues that a virtue does not operate as a virtue when turned to a bad end. Virtues are good for us and also help us to correct harmful human passions and temptations. Additionally, in his book After Virtue, Alasdair Macintyre claims that ethical theories have simple resulted in ethical disagreements. The result if this, he suggests, is that people do not think there are any moral truths and consider one opinion to be as good as any other opinion. Macintyre argues that most people’s attitudes today are based on emotivism. Macintyre added a vital feature to the ethic, as he wanted to restore the idea that morality should be seen in terms of human purpose, but he thought it would not be possible to restore Aristotle’s theory of function and so he attempted to make human function, and so human virtue, depend on community. According to virtue ethics, morality is not found in actions or in duties, but in the person performing the actions, the ‘agent’. Thus morality should focus on the person, and not necessarily on the choices they make in their moral behavior. The theory concentrates on being, rather than doing, and this crucial feature results in the contrasts with other forms of ethics,  which aim to show how to discover the right course of action. Although the system is based on ideals, it is no unrealistic, because it looks to actual examples of virtuous people, such as Martin Luther King or Jesus; it can therefore be seen to have attainable targets. It’s aim is to achieve something which people genuinely want, eudaimonia, rather than being based on arguably incoherent ideas about the after-life. Evaluate the extent to which virtue ethics can withstand criticism. Virtue ethics encompasses all aspects of life rather than particular actions. It sees every moment as the possibility for acquiring or developing virtue. Virtue ethics provides an alternative route for drawing on the tradition of moral philosophy in a way that’s a different from the natural law approach. It’s an alternative ethical model that fits Christian ethics and also reaches beyond religious ethics. However, some Christians may argue that, in modern society, the extent of the relevance of the ethic can be considered insignificant as it focuses on the fundamental issues of what it means to be human, rather than looking for rules. Therefore, virtue ethics does not pretend to be able to tell us what a good person would do in every situation but encourages us to be more like such a person so that we will not need an ethical theory to make our decisions for us. This asset strengthens the theory, possibly increasing the extent to which it can withstand criticism as it stresses the importance of character, providing the example: someone who helps the poor out of compassion does seem to be morally superior to someone who does it out of duty. Multiple criticisms have been voiced about the theory and many have reduced the degree to which the concept is valued in modern day society. For example, one criticism leveled against virtue theory is that it is far from replacing the arguments about moral duty and moral absolutes, it ultimately depends on them. Walter Schaller, in his works, argues that moral virtues have only ‘instrumental or derivative value’. Virtue ethics relies on the concept of duty and the idea that there are moral norms or absolutes. This point undermines the significance of virtue theory, as Macintyre was trying to get away from the arguments about duty and moral actions. On the other hand, Robert Louden criticises the theory by questioning how virtue ethics can be applied to moral dilemmas. He argued that virtue ethics does not help people facing a crisis because it does not give any clear rules for action, for example what is the virtuous response to abortion? Virtue ethics does not provide any concrete answers and only says it is a matter for the practical wisdom of the person facing the situation. However, some Christians may argue that this statement can be counteracted as a strength of the theory as a lack of concrete answers allows personal choice and freedom to decide what is morally virtuous, increasing it’s ability to withstand criticism. Louden also points out that it is difficult to decide who is virtuous, as acts which appear virtuous on the outside may not necessarily have good motives and vice versa. Nevertheless, virtue ethics counteracts this criticism as it, as a theory, enables us to integrate many aspects of life, such as our social responsibilities, into our ethical reflection; it looks at what makes life valuable rather than looking at what is right or wrong. It does not reject our emotions but includes them, and so is more in-tune with how people naturally react to an ethical dilemma. It relates our ethical choices to the bigger picture. Additionally, it has been argued that virtue ethics does not seem to have room for basic concepts such as rights and obligations. This therefore reduces the theory’s ability to withstand the criticisms proposed of it and thus reducing how relevant the theory is. As a theory of ethics is seems incapable of dealing with big issues – virtue ethics does not always have a view about what makes an act right or wrong. It is vague, therefore it is hard to make decisions. Moreover, the theory counteracts the criticisms aimed at it through the use of examples of virtuous people. Virtue ethics stresses the importance of motivating people to want to be good. Shows how we acquire and learn virtues by intimidating others. Examples of these virtuous people are Martin Luther  King and Jesus who both fought for supreme happiness for society. Conversely, criticisms have been constantly weakening the theory through questions such as ‘What is happiness?’ and ‘Does Aristotle’s supreme happiness exist?’. It has been argued that virtue ethics depends on some final end which gives shape to our lives – there may not be one and being virtuous may not effect it anyway. These factors significantly weaken the extent to which the theory has survived criticism especially as the ethic seems to praise some virtues that Christians might see as immoral, such as soldiers fighting unjust wars may be courageous but that doesn’t make them morally good. However, the theory has also been vitally strengthened for modern society through its acceptability of bias behavior in favor of friends and family, unlike utilitarianism or Kant, which see impartiality as important. The relevance of the concept is also supported through it’s avoidance of following a formula, such as utilitarianism: ‘the greatest good for the greatest number’, to work out what we ought to do and focuses instead on the kind of person we ought to be. Therefore it is a more practical way of making a decision easily. Overall, even though the criticisms of the theory are vital in reducing the extent to which it is valued in this present day, the strengths of the theory provide society with an ethical guideline as to how to be and what makes a virtuous person.

Big Mountain High School Case Study Analysis Education Essay

In this instance survey analysis, I will give a brief sum-up of the instance and the jobs I found along with particulars. I will besides supply recommendations for the territory and school leading that will turn to the awaited barriers to alter. I will establish my recommendations on the needed readings for this class every bit good as other theoreticians and their research applicable to the instance survey. Big Mountain High School serves over 1450 pupils in grades 10-12. Large Mountain is the lone high school in the county, and besides the largest high school in the province. Its geographical location is known for its wilderness and beauty. Because of its location it is mostly a rural territory where many of the attending pupils commute more than 30 stat mis every twenty-four hours to have day-to-day direction. The population of the school ranges from diverse socio-economic backgrounds. As evidenced in the instance, 40 % of the pupils will travel on to go toing 4-year colleges, while 20 % of the pupils attend 2-year colleges. For pupils that are non college edge, as an excess educational option, the territory provides them with a vocational plan ( Smith & A ; Louis, Winter 1999 ) . The Superintendent of the territory is Mr. Bob Carpenter a indigen of the territory. He has been the overseer for four old ages and he is described as being magnetic, a individual who makes determinations and gets things done. He is extremely respected amongst the instructors and staff because he meets straight with the instructors and listens to what they have to state. Mr. Carpenter is besides described as utilizing a bottom-up leading manner doctrine. The chief Mr. Vogel has held the place for 15 old ages. He is known as being a dedicated manager, candid and carnival to his staff. Mr. Vogel besides adopted a bottom-up leading manner doctrine. Some nevertheless, see him to be â€Å" crusty and impersonal † and even unapproachable. He makes hiring determinations, nominates the section chairs, normally communicates with instructors in short staff meetings, and maintains that disposal has full authorization over the processs and policies in the school. The sections at Big Mountain high school were given entire authorization and liberty as how they distribute the instruction assignments, how course of study and direction is designed and they besides make the determinations on budget allotments. Meetings between the principal and section caputs are non regular events, they normally meet one time every three hebdomads and the meetings are normally really short. Finally, there are the instructors. The territory ranks the highest paid among other territories in the province, supplying the territory with a big pool of extremely qualified appliers. Teachers at Big Mountain command how they teach, have small or no treatments over learning methods, the type of direction, and have small or no input in the determination doing procedure that takes topographic point in the school. Faculty is divided and with really small interdisciplinary engagement. There are several leading issues present in the instance. The major issues revolve around the ability of the leading to expeditiously take the school during a much needed alteration. In the instance of the mandated course of study alteration as required by the province, the treatments of the new course of study raised personal and pedagogical differences amongst the module. If the end of the leading is to further growing and alter the way in which the school is traveling, it would be wise for the leading to take a human resource frame attack as discussed in Bolman & A ; Deal, where under the human resource frame, leaders provide and foster equal engagement in the determination devising ( Bolman & A ; Deal, 2008 ) . At Big Mountain, the caputs of section have a significant sum of influence and authorization, and are perceived by the module as decision makers and determination shapers. These differences in power have led to a deficiency of interdisciplinary engagement between section caputs and module members where Hargreaves & A ; Fink refer to as, traditional power blocks ( Hargreaves & A ; Fink, April 2004 ) . This deficiency of interdisciplinary engagement and the misinterpretation of a collaborative leading, as become a top-down hierarchy leading, instead than a sensed bottom-up leading as expressed by the chief Mr. Vogel. It is obvious that the principal in this school will non be developing meaningful relationships with the staff. His neglect for the sentiments of the instructors during his short module meetings, along with his important leading manner resemble what Fullan ( 2001 ) describes as coercive and bossy leading. As the freshly appointed caput for the Language Arts Department, Mr. Chester non merely appointed to the commission merely those who agree with him, he besides restricted the engagement from the instructors that will be implementing the course of study. By making so, he derailed Bolman & A ; Deal ‘s model attack, and the construct of the structural frame where the attempts of groups and persons are coordinated, and besides the human resource frame, where affecting others gives them a sense of belonging and ownership ( Bolman & A ; Deal, 2008 ) . Even though ab initio the principal shared the determination devising with the commission, he rapidly reversed that determination and decided to do the determinations himself. However, subsequently he decided to name Chester to take the new alterations commission to implement the new course of study. One once more his rushed determination was made without the engagement and the input from the instructors, go forthing it small room to win and showing the deficiency of communicating and alliance edifice, necessary when turn toing alteration ( Kanter, Summer 1999 ) . As the overseer, Bob Carpenter was non of much aid to the principal in set uping and developing a successful civilization of committed members within the organisation. Although important and magnetic, his strong interaction accomplishments, the ability to construct relationships while run intoing with instructors and listening to their concerns when the principal was non supportive, have earned him the regard of the instructors, minimising the authorization of the principal. As the overseer, Bob failed as a function theoretical account, and a wise man to the principal. He came across as holding his ain political docket, showing the deficiency of his leading qualities. Qualities required when constructing a successful organisation. Recommendations for ImprovementInspiring leaders have the ability to turn schools about. On the other manus mediocre leaders can alter the civilization of a school and hinder the patterned advance of successful enterprises that may be ongoing within an organisation driven by its members. â€Å" A civilization of alteration consists of great celerity and nonlinearity, on one manus and every bit great potency for originative discoveries on the other. The paradox is that transmutation would non be possible without attach toing muss † ( Fullan, 2001, p. 31 ) . It is obvious that muss is in the hereafter of Big Mountain. Changes are inevitable, and a complete restructuring of the school is recommended. From the overseer, to principal, to section leaders, and to instructors, all fail to develop a collaborative and cohesive work environment. In the instance, the prostration was initiated from the top-down where is lacked sustainable leading. Hargreaves ( 2009 ) describes five obstructions that impede effectual leading and should be addressed in the restructuring procedure of Big Mountain. The obstructions impede the successful execution of the restructuring when sequence is ill planned, sequence passages are severely managed, sequence is frequently on the incorrect frequence, sequence planning fails to see the emotional facets, and in conclusion sequence is non treated as a systemic job. Sequence in leading is an of import facet when reconstituting an organisation and it is frequently overlooked, weakening the long term alterations for a successful turn-around. Large Mountain could profit of an increased stableness in leading. It was evident that neither the overseer nor the principal were wholly dedicated to the school and its vision. The overseer and the principal could hold been more proactive in edifice and set uping a common vision for the school. Constructing a systemic leading is another of import facet that should be taken into consideration. The overseer should work on developing unfastened lines of communicating with other successful schools in the territory, and develop partnerships with the other schools where information is shared, and thoughts are exchanged leting schools to assist each other and ultimately addition accomplishment. Another recommendation involves the development of a distributed leading and the creative activity of managers for the new leading. Bolman & A ; Deal ( 2008 ) depict the human resource frame, where the overseer and the principal would put more accent on constructing personal relationships, and the s chool would profit from the constitution of an unfastened and true bottom-up leading manner doctrine. Because more and more disposal is comprised of first-time leaders, giving support to new leaders will relieve the emotional emphasis associated with the place. Supplying good back uping managers will assist the new leaders with the troubles that come with the new administrative function. A concluding option is to maintain the position quo of the school. However, without alterations in leading, the instability that exists amongst the staff will stay and will go on to decline. Leadership stableness can be improved by leading sequence, and this may be accomplished by administering successful leaders across schools in the territory and developing a support web that will help overseers, principals and instructors throughout the territory. â€Å" Successful sequence is about turning and linking leading throughout a system, non merely happening the right tantrum for single leaders. † And â€Å" Permanent betterment seldom exists without leading stableness or successful sequence. Effective sequence is a strategic challenge but non an unsurmountable 1 † ( Hargreaves & A ; Fink, April 2004 ) . MentionsBolman, L. G. , & A ; Deal, T. E. ( 2008 ) .Reframing organisations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fullan, M. ( 2001 ) .Leading in a civilization of alteration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hargreaves, A. ( 2009 ) . Leadership Succession and Sustainable Improvement.School Administrator, 66 ( 11 ) , 10-15. Retrieved from ERIC database. Hargreaves, A. , & A ; Fink, D. ( April 2004 ) . The Seven Principles of Sustainable Leadership.Educational Leadership, 61 ( 7 ) , 8-13. Kanter, M. ( Summer 1999 ) . The Enduring Skill of Change Leaders.Leader to Leader Journal( 13 ) , 15-22. Smith, B. , & A ; Louis, L. ( Winter 1999 ) . Case 2: Changes at Big Mountain High School [ Abstract ] .Journal of Cases in Educational LeadershiP, 2 ( 1 ) , 1-2.

Accounting Rate Of Return Arr Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1806 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? The aim of this Capital Investment Appraisal Report is to evaluate two transport infrastructure projects for the city of Coventry using four different appraisal techniques and make a recommendation based on the calculations as to which project would be most profitable. The budget is pound;30 million and the projects are mutually exclusive, which means only one can be undertaken. Project 1 is a new tram network and would link major parts of the city. Project 2 is a new toll road that would link the M69 and M6 motorways. Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) ARR is a non-discounted cash flow method and the only appraisal technique that is profit based. It is calculated by dividing the average annual profit by the initial investment and multiplied by 100 to give a percentage figure. ARR is easy to calculate as it is based on accounting principles. it reflects the value of the project over its entire life and is preferred by most managers as they can compare the returns from different projects and select the one which offers the highest return. ARR is usually used internally when it comes to project selection. It is rarely used by investors as cash flows are more important and ARR does not take into account non-cash items. The profit is subjective and does not equate to cash and it uses arbitrary depreciation methods. It does not take into account the time value of money, which means the value of cash flows does not diminish with time. The ARR for project 1 is 11.98% and for project 2 is 13.17%. If we were to choose between t hese two projects purely based on the ARR then we would select Project 2 as it offers a higher rate of return. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Accounting Rate Of Return Arr Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Payback Period (PBP) PBP calculates the time taken for the net cash inflows to equal the initial investment. The shorter the payback period, the more attractive the project. Payback Period is very simple to compute and it provides some information on the risk of the investment and a crude measure of liquidity. It does not however take into account the time value of money, this can be corrected however by using the discounted payback period. Cash flows after the cut-off period are ignored, the cut-off period itself is arbitrary and it ignores the risk of future cash flows. This means you could hypothetically get a huge cash flow injection after the cut off period which would be ignored. There is also no concrete decision criteria to indicate whether an investment increases the firms value. (https://educ.jmu.edu/~drakepp/principles/module6/advdistable.pdf) PBP for Project 1 is 6 years and 5 months and for Project 2 its 5 years and 9 months, this means we recoup our investment quicker with the latter investment despite it costing more and taking longer to build. this would imply that it would generate a higher revenue based on the forecasts. Comparing the payback period for both projects, we would recommend investing in project 2 as the payback period is shorter. Net Present Value (NPV) This is the sum of all the present values of all the relevant cash flows connected to the project. If the NPV is positive then we accept the project and if we have several projects that are mutually exclusive then we accept the project with the highest NPV. We reject any projects that have a negative NPV. (https://educ.jmu.edu/~drakepp/principles/module6/advdistable.pdf) NPV tells us whether the investment will increase the firms value. It considers all the cash flows, includes the time value of money and considers the risk of future cash flows through the cost of capital. One of the few weaknesses of this technique is that it requires an estimate of the cost of capital in order to calculate the net present value and the answer is expressed in terms of currency and not as a percentage. The NPV for both projects is positive but Project 2 has a much higher NPV, difference of pound;4,495,921, more than double that of Project 1, thus we would recommend investing in Project 2 based on this method. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) IRR is the discount factor at which NPV is equal to zero. The strengths of this appraisal method is that it tells us the firms value will be increased by the investment. It considers all the cash flows of the project, takes into account the time value of money and considers the risk to future cash flow through the cost of capital. Some of the flaws of this technique are that the cost of capital has to be estimated through trail and error in order to make a decision. It may not give the profit-maximising decision when used to compare mutually exclusive projects or help choose projects when capital rationing is involved. Finally it cannot be used for projects with unconventional cash flows. (https://educ.jmu.edu/~drakepp/principles/module6/advdistable.pdf) Through the trial and error method and using a difference of one percent for greater accuracy, where NPV switches from positive to negative, using the total present value rounded to the nearest pound and using a discount fact or to three decimal places, I interpolated the IRR for both projects. IRR for Project 1 is 13.28% and for project 2 it was 15.31%. Again the latter offers the higher rate of return, so the advice would be to invest in Project 2 based on this method. Non Financial Factors When assessing the feasibility of a project, non-financial factors are just as important as the economic benefit of a project and have to be considered in making any meaningful investment decision. It is important to analyse whether or not the customer will be satisfied before making an investment, as that will affect the return generated. Government policy is another important non financial factor when making investment decisions, as the rate of interest or tax could affect loan repayments, price of materials and labour. Comparing what your competitors are doing in the market could lead to investing in projects that are based on non financial factors. Analysing any trends before making an investment to see if there is a potential return from the investment. The City Council would need to consider if there is enough skilled labour force to operate the equipment that is to be invested in. The effect an investment will have on staff motivation is also a key factor b efore going ahead with any project. (https://www.accountantnextdoor.com/investment-appraisal-8-non-financial-factors-that-every-accountants-and-managers-should-consider/) Customers attracted by the product might see another product that they may like, this is known as backend profit and could be another non financial factor to consider before making an investment. Environmental issues have recently become very important to companies as they do not wish to be seen as irresponsible by the public, who could be potential customers. Companies will often invest in equipment that are seen as preserving the environment to project a positive image even though it may not be financially in their interest. The government is strongly committed to avoiding tolls on any existing roads. Campaign for Better Transport has stated the problem experienced by a number of road and toll projects, including the Mersey Gateway bridge and the loss-making M6 motorway. There is strong evidence to su ggest that forecasts for traffic on existing roads, and toll roads in particular, are over-optimistic worldwide and in the UK, as the M6 toll experience shows. A 2011 analysis of 100 completed road toll projects around the world found that road traffic forecasts have been over-optimistic by 20-25%. In the UK there has been driver opposition to pay-as-you-drive. The UK has a very highly developed existing network with large numbers of alternative routes available to drivers who wish to avoid tolls. Campaign for Better Transport review of the M6 Toll showed a drop in traffic level and revenue on the toll roads. (The M6 Toll, five years on. Campaign for Better Transport, August 2010) In other countries, toll roads have also experienced problems with over-optimistic traffic forecasts. In Brisbane, Australia, operator River City Motorway went into receivership in 2011 after predicted traffic flows on the tolled Clem7 Tunnel fell to less than a third of what was predicted. (ht tps://www.bettertransport.org.uk/files/admin/Problems_with_Private_Roads_FinalWeb.pdf) A recent study published, examined the problems faced by toll roads in the UK and the findings included some of the points listed below. There is a certain element of risk to investors that require large guarantees from the local council or government to make this type of investment attractive, thus making them vulnerable to political changes and pressure. Community opposition to the building of new roads is often seen and this could add further risk by increasing the timescale in getting project approval. Strong evidence suggests that forecasts for traffic on existing toll roads are over-optimistic worldwide and in the UK, as the M6 toll experience shows. Females tend to be more reluctant to change routes and low to medium income earners are more sensitive to tolls. (Lake, M. and Ferreira, L. (2002). Modelling tolls: values of time and elasticities of demand: a summary of evidence. ) If we were to look briefly at the tram proposal, the tram would result in a reduction in the number of car trips, compared to the no tram scenario. This would mean fewer parking spaces will be taken, and these benefits are likely to be focussed in the areas served by the tram and result in less traffic on the roads in these areas. (WEST LONDON TRAM: EALING COUNCIL BUSINESS CASE 2005) In the future, government might introduce traffic limitation measures, such as congestion charges and parking control charging. In this scenario the tram would provide an attractive alternative for those choosing to use their cars less. (HS2 Ltd, 2011, HS2 London to the West Midlands Appraisal of Sustainability, A report for the Department for Transport) Conclusion Any major project, like a motorway or tram network which affects millions of people has many factors besides the economic factor that have to be taken into account. It has been observed that noise pollution, particularly air pollution, damages peoples health. The publics adverse reaction to certain projects might jeopardise governments chances of re-election. The proposed projectss pros and cons has to be evaluated. Social, environmental and political factors are very important. Sometimes a non-financial factor could influence a company into accepting a project with a lesser return for a better image, this is the opportunity cost. If the environmental and non-financial factors were more important to the City Council then Project 1 would be the better option. It is still making a profit and would cost pound;8,000,000 less to invest in. My recommendation though, to Coventry City Council, based on the results from the four appraisal techniques would be to invest in Project 2. That would be the correct decision if financial factors are the only motivation.

Class Struggle Explored in House of the Spirits and Uncle...

The House of the Spirits and Uncle Vanya are two famous international literary works written within a century of each other. Despite the differences in time periods of which the two works were written, they both seem to convey the literary theme of class struggle between the poor lower class and the rich upper class elites. Both elaborate on the feelings of resentment and regret as a result of the hardships of life around them as demonstrated through hidden historical connections, literary devices such as parables and themes, and love reminiscences. Since the beginning of civilization, class struggle has existed not only as a result of economic conditions but societal conditions as well (Thirteen Notes on Class Struggle for Discussion).†¦show more content†¦There was the upper elite class of government officials, the middle class, and the serfs. If one was not in the upper or middle class than life was miserable. A lot of citizens had to make sacrifices just so that they co uld continue to live in the meager existence that life afforded. There was no place to go other than down and no opportunities to better themselves as an individual. Chekhov lived in a place where people often became depressed, bitter, and filled with enmity (Chekhov 60). Just as individuals in House of the Spirits had to struggle against their government to survive and increase their standard of living so did the people in Uncle Vanya. Likewise, both Esteban Trueba and Vanya made sacrifices in their lives for love as a result of the stigma of social class. Esteban fell in love with Rosa the Beautiful, daughter of a senator. Since he was below her station and could not possibly have been able to provide for her in the way that she was accustomed to, he went to work as a mineworker for several years so that he would have enough money to provide a stable home for her and give her everythin g she desired (Allende 44). For years, Trueba worked in a mine he hated and just when he had discovered something in the mine that would make him rich for life Rosa died. Her death would later cause him

Retirement Stereotypes and Combined Effects of Gender...

Differential Consequences and Rewards of Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Younger and Older Workers Employees are increasingly pushing back retirement leading to an older and higher proportion of older employees in the workplace. In fact, the SHRM Workplace Forecast (2013) released by The Society for Human Resource’s listed the generation gap as a top future workplace trend. In addition, women are to becoming more and more a part of today’s workforce. However, both older individuals and women remain highly stereotyped groups. A majority of workplace stereotypes toward older adults and women are unfounded and serve as unfair hurdles towards these groups. A common stereotype of elder individuals is that they are less innovative†¦show more content†¦Debate within organizations stems from how discretionary such roles can actually be described as being. Van Dyne and LePine (1998) define such behavior as: not specified in advance, not recognized by a formal reward system, and not a source of punitive behavior; however, others argue that these behaviors are in fact in-role behavior and are expected of employees (Bolino, 1999). Noting that job descriptions were becoming more ambiguous, Organ (1997) defended OCB by altering the definition to â€Å"contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the psychological context that support task performance. In 2006, he further defended the discretionary nature by once more redefining the construct: ‘discretionary contributions that go beyond the stric t description and that do not lay claim to contractual recompense from the formal reward system’ (see Spitzmuller et al 2006). Conflict in the literature is formulated around how to understand the underlying dimensions. When the OCB was initially introduced it was comprised of two dimensions:Show MoreRelatedWomen, Ageism, and Poverty in Canada2779 Words   |  12 Pagesentered into old age, the discrimination of ageism was realized and reflected. The disparity of work, the inequality of retirement funds and the perception of ageing leads to ageism disproportionately affecting women which results in poverty in old age. When feminists apply specific methods and strategies to combat ageism, older women will be able to participate in a full and equal life in their later years. Ageism is a negative perception of older people by way of stereotypes and biases. 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Education during French Revolution Essay Example For Students

Education during French Revolution Essay 28. 10. 2013 How was the education like during the French Revolution? Even though the French Revolution brought terror and It seems Like nothing good came out of it, in the following sections youll find out that the educational system was one of the things that did improve and what the education was like before, during and after the revolution. Not only that people realized their need for education, but also important figures, as Napoleon, supported them and came with new ideas. Before the French Revolution, life in French was easy for the rich people (clergy, nobles and argosies) In all ways, Including education. All over the countries there were lots of Important and well-paid colleges. Universities and elementary schools. All financed by the Catholic Church. There were over 50,000 students from which 3,000 were scholarship students. Rarely, some of the wealthy poor afforded education and they were not discriminated in any way, they studied in the same places as the rich ones. Teachers were very well paid, they were allowed to teach in their ways and they did not have any kind of diploma. During the revolution, the educational system suffered lots of changes. As the Catholic Church lost most of Its power, the colleges did not receive that much money so 9 of 10 were sold or closed. The education was not one of the main problems during the revolution so for a small amount of time people did not receive proper education. Most of the teachers and the students (most of them being nobles) went to war, education was no longer important. Professors of law and medicine earned their income by being lawyers or physicians. Teaching was a part- time Job. The Jacobin, as many others, had the Idea of unity and uniformity but they were also the first ones who thought that education was Important and that the school should be public and free. There were also private schools but they werent as popular as the public ones. After the French revolution, during Napoleons empire, the educational system changed into a way that we are still using these days. He gave enough money to all the schools so that the ones that had been closed during the revolution could reopen. A student had to go through Elementary School, Secondary School, College and then University. They studied mathematics, physics and chemistry, natural history, scientific method and psychology, political economy and legislation, the philosophic history of peoples, hygiene, arts and crafts, general grammar, belles letters, ancient languages, painting and drawing. All the subject are going to be studied in French instead of Latin as a result of theunity and uniformity. Napoleon was the first one who agreed with the rights of woman and eve them the right to education. He thought that In order to raise great children, women have to be educated. There were different schools for women, which they learnt fewer things than the boys. Women did not go to university. All the teachers had to be qualified. These are the changes that the educational system had been through along the French Revolution and even though, the revolution seemed useless, this is one of the few good things that happened during it. Figures that brought terror, like Napoleon or The Jacobin, improved things that made a preference after a long amount of time.

The Replacements free essay sample

The Replacements are finally growing up, for better or worse. The AMats played at the Orpheum Theatre in February to a mixed crowd. The boys have tamed considerably from their younger days. Slim Dunlap, guitarist, rarely even faced the audience. Towards the end, Tommy Stinson, bassist and best dressed musician of any decade, performed some splits in the air, but that was as wild as it got. As usual, there were some pauses between songs when they were deciding what to play. On the whole, though, it was a well structured show. The bands new drummer, Steve Foley, fit in adequately, but the audience knew who was still running the show: The Replacements frontman Paul Westerburg. As for the material played, most songs were from their latest release, All Shook Down. The band played a few older tunes, and even ventured into a couple of almost acoustic bluesy numbers. The souped-up version of Talent Show and Bent Out of Shape were something to hear. We will write a custom essay sample on The Replacements or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Why dont the AMats play with such fierceness and vitality on their albums? The audience was primarily a thirtysomething crowd. There was a lot of head-bobbing and toe-tapping, but not the kind of things one sees at a rock and roll concert. One raucous group of boys had the audacity to stand up. The good news is The Replacements havent broken up and still know how to rock, if only in concert. The bad news is their fans have grown too old to remember what live shows are, and how to behave. n